Notebooks · lib/gguf/header

Reading a GGUF file, part 1, the header

GGUF is the file format of ggml and llama.cpp: one file holds a model's metadata (architecture, hyperparameters, tokenizer) and its tensors, each in one of ggml's number formats. This module reads the part before the tensor data. It is a rewrite, from the specification, of the reader in ggml's src/gguf.cpp and of gguf-py's gguf/gguf_reader.py: ggml (github.com/ggml-org/ggml, MIT, The ggml authors), specification docs/gguf.md at commit 3612c0af93f2. The tests compare it with gguf-py 0.19.0 (tools/gguf/check.sh).

The file starts with four fields, little-endian:

offset  0  u32  magic: the bytes "GGUF"
offset  4  u32  version (3 since August 2023)
offset  8  u64  the number of tensors
offset 16  u64  the number of metadata key-value pairs

Then the key-value pairs, one after another with no padding:

key    a string: u64 length, then that many bytes of UTF-8
type   u32: one of the thirteen value types below
value  1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes for a number or a bool; a string as above;
       an ARRAY is u32 element type, u64 count, then the elements

A file is read in windows of WINDOW bytes (a Reader), so the header of a model, whose tokenizer alone is 700 KB for a 32000-token vocabulary, never needs more than one window in memory.

Used with from gguf.header import read_meta (and the other names here).

Look inside this program

Atlas
The program’s map: every function and which calls which.
There’s no recorded run of this program yet.

This program declares a record type (Header), and records run only in compiled C for now, so the Run buttons here are off. Open it in the workbench and use its C tab to compile it.

Shift+Enter in a cell runs it and moves to the next. Running a cell runs every cell above it too, as one program.

[1]lines 35–378

# "GGUF" read as a little-endian u32: 0x46554747
GGUF_MAGIC: Int = 1179993927
# the version this reader knows; 1 and 2 had 32-bit counts
GGUF_VERSION: Int = 3
# the four fields: magic, version, tensor count, key-value count
OFF_VERSION: Int = 4
OFF_N_TENSORS: Int = 8
OFF_N_KV: Int = 16
HEADER_BYTES: Int = 24

# the value types (docs/gguf.md, enum gguf_metadata_value_type)
T_UINT8: Int = 0
T_INT8: Int = 1
T_UINT16: Int = 2
T_INT16: Int = 3
T_UINT32: Int = 4
T_INT32: Int = 5
T_FLOAT32: Int = 6
T_BOOL: Int = 7
T_STRING: Int = 8
T_ARRAY: Int = 9
T_UINT64: Int = 10
T_INT64: Int = 11
T_FLOAT64: Int = 12
TYPE_NAMES: [Str] = ["UINT8", "INT8", "UINT16", "INT16", "UINT32", "INT32", "FLOAT32", "BOOL", "STRING", "ARRAY", "UINT64", "INT64", "FLOAT64"]
# bytes a value of each type takes; 0 for the two that carry their length
TYPE_BYTES: [Int] = [1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 1, 0, 0, 8, 8, 8]
# bytes read from the file at a time
WINDOW: Int = 65536

record Header {
    version: Int
    n_tensors: Int
    n_kv: Int
}

#| A position in a file and a window of its bytes: `b` holds the bytes from
#| offset `base`, and `pos` is the offset of the next byte to read. A reader
#| with no path reads only `b`, the start of a file a caller already holds.
record Reader {
    path: Str
    b: [Int]
    base: Int
    pos: Int
}

#| One metadata value. `types` is the value's type, then for an ARRAY its
#| element type, and so on down (gguf-py's `ReaderField.types`); the values
#| themselves, an array's flattened, are in `ints` (the integer types and
#| BOOL, as 0 or 1), `nums` (FLOAT32 and FLOAT64) or `strs` (STRING).
record Value {
    types: [Int]
    ints: [Int]
    nums: Arr
    strs: [Str]
}

#| A file's header and metadata: `keys[k]` holds `values[k]`, in file
#| order, and `end` is the offset just past the last value.
record Meta {
    header: Header
    keys: [Str]
    values: [Value]
    end: Int
}

#| The four fields at the start of a GGUF file, from its first bytes `b`.
def header_of(b: [Int]) -> Header {
    if len(b) < HEADER_BYTES {
        stop(f"GGUF: {len(b):d} bytes is shorter than a header")
    }
    if le_u32(b, 0) != GGUF_MAGIC {
        stop("GGUF: the file does not start with the bytes GGUF")
    }
    version = le_u32(b, OFF_VERSION)
    if version != GGUF_VERSION {
        stop(f"GGUF: version {version}; this reader knows version 3")
    }
    return Header { version: version, n_tensors: le_u64(b, OFF_N_TENSORS), n_kv: le_u64(b, OFF_N_KV) }
}

#| The header of the GGUF file at `path`.
def read_header(path: Str) -> Header {
    return header_of(read_bytes(path, 0, HEADER_BYTES))
}

#| A reader at offset `pos` of the file at `path`, its window not read yet.
def reader_at(path: Str, pos: Int) -> Reader {
    none: [Int] = []
    return Reader { path: path, b: none, base: pos, pos: pos }
}

#| A reader of the bytes `b`, the first bytes of a file, with no file behind them.
def reader_of(b: [Int]) -> Reader {
    return Reader { path: "", b: b, base: 0, pos: 0 }
}

#| `r` with at least `k` bytes from its position in its window: the same
#| reader when they are there, else a new window that starts at the position.
def need(r: Reader, k: Int) -> Reader {
    if r.pos >= r.base and r.pos + k <= r.base + len(r.b) {
        return r
    }
    if r.path == "" {
        stop(f"GGUF: the bytes given end at offset {len(r.b)}, inside a value that needs {k} bytes from {r.pos}")
    }
    w = r
    w.b = read_bytes(r.path, r.pos, max(k, WINDOW))
    w.base = r.pos
    if len(w.b) < k {
        stop(f"GGUF: {r.path} ends at offset {r.pos + len(w.b)}, inside a value that needs {k} bytes from {r.pos}")
    }
    return w
}

#| `r` moved `k` bytes on.
def skip(r: Reader, k: Int) -> Reader {
    q = r
    q.pos = r.pos + k
    return q
}

#| The bytes `b[at:at+n]` as UTF-8 text.
def utf8(b: [Int], at: Int, n: Int) -> Str {
    out: [Str] = []
    i = at
    while i < at + n {
        c = b[i]
        # the length of the sequence from its first byte: 0xxxxxxx, 110xxxxx,
        # 1110xxxx, 11110xxx; a continuation byte is 10xxxxxx
        k: Int = 1
        cp = c
        if c >= 240 {
            k = 4
            cp = band(c, 7)
        }
        else if c >= 224 {
            k = 3
            cp = band(c, 15)
        }
        else if c >= 192 {
            k = 2
            cp = band(c, 31)
        }
        else if c >= 128 {
            stop(f"GGUF: byte {c} at offset {i} does not start a UTF-8 character")
        }
        if i + k > at + n {
            stop("GGUF: a string ends inside a UTF-8 character")
        }
        for j from 1 to k {
            cp = bor(shl(cp, 6), band(b[i + j], 63))
        }
        out = append(out, chr(cp))
        i = i + k
    }
    return join("", out)
}

#| A GGUF string at the reader: u64 length, then the bytes.
def take_str(r: Reader) {
    q = need(r, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64])
    n = le_u64(q.b, q.pos - q.base)
    q = skip(q, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64])
    q = need(q, n)
    s = utf8(q.b, q.pos - q.base, n)
    return skip(q, n), s
}

#| A u32 at the reader (a type code).
def take_u32(r: Reader) {
    q = need(r, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT32])
    return skip(q, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT32]), le_u32(q.b, q.pos - q.base)
}

#| A u64 at the reader (a count).
def take_u64(r: Reader) {
    q = need(r, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64])
    return skip(q, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64]), le_u64(q.b, q.pos - q.base)
}

#| One value of type `t` at the reader, added to `v`: a number, a bool or a
#| string, or for an ARRAY its element type, its count and its elements.
#| `depth` counts the arrays this value is inside; an element type is noted
#| in `v.types` once per level.
def take_value(r: Reader, t: Int, v: Value, depth: Int) {
    q = r
    w = v
    if t == T_STRING {
        q, s = take_str(q)
        w.strs = append(w.strs, s)
    }
    else if t == T_ARRAY {
        q, et = take_u32(q)
        q, n = take_u64(q)
        if len(w.types) == depth + 1 {
            w.types = append(w.types, et)
        }
        for k to n {
            q, w = take_value(q, et, w, depth + 1)
        }
    }
    else if t >= 0 and t < len(TYPE_BYTES) {
        k = TYPE_BYTES[t]
        q = need(q, k)
        at = q.pos - q.base
        if t == T_FLOAT32 {
            w.nums = append(w.nums, le_f32(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_FLOAT64 {
            w.nums = append(w.nums, le_f64(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT8 or t == T_BOOL {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_u8(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_INT8 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i8(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT16 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_u16(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_INT16 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i16(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT32 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_u32(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_INT32 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i32(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT64 {
            # a UINT64 above 2^63 - 1 is kept as its bit pattern, a negative Int
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i64(q.b, at))
        }
        else {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i64(q.b, at))
        }
        q = skip(q, k)
    }
    else {
        stop(f"GGUF: value type {t} at offset {r.pos} is not one of the thirteen")
    }
    return q, w
}

#| The header and every key-value pair of the GGUF file at `path`.
def read_meta(path: Str) -> Meta {
    return meta_from(reader_at(path, 0))
}

#| The header and every key-value pair, read by `r`, a reader at offset 0.
def meta_from(r0: Reader) -> Meta {
    r = need(r0, HEADER_BYTES)
    h = header_of(r.b[:HEADER_BYTES])
    r = skip(r, HEADER_BYTES)
    keys: [Str] = []
    values: [Value] = []
    for k to h.n_kv {
        r, key = take_str(r)
        r, t = take_u32(r)
        ts: [Int] = [t]
        v = Value { types: ts, ints: int_zeros(0), nums: [], strs: [] }
        r, v = take_value(r, t, v, 0)
        keys = append(keys, key)
        values = append(values, v)
    }
    return Meta { header: h, keys: keys, values: values, end: r.pos }
}

#| The position of `key` among the metadata's keys, or -1.
def find_key(m: Meta, key: Str) -> Int {
    for k to len(m.keys) {
        if m.keys[k] == key {
            return int(k)
        }
    }
    return -1
}

#| The integer value of `key` (an integer type or BOOL); `fallback` when the
#| file has no such key.
def meta_int(m: Meta, key: Str, fallback: Int) -> Int {
    k = find_key(m, key)
    if k < 0 {
        return fallback
    }
    if len(m.values[k].ints) != 1 {
        stop(f"GGUF: {key} is not one integer")
    }
    return m.values[k].ints[0]
}

#| The string value of `key`; `fallback` when the file has no such key.
def meta_str(m: Meta, key: Str, fallback: Str) -> Str {
    k = find_key(m, key)
    if k < 0 {
        return fallback
    }
    if len(m.values[k].strs) != 1 or m.values[k].types[0] != T_STRING {
        stop(f"GGUF: {key} is not a string")
    }
    return m.values[k].strs[0]
}

#| One line per key, `key TYPES count`, then one line per element, in the
#| form tools/gguf/ref.py prints gguf-py's fields (strings as Python's repr,
#| numbers to 17 digits), so the two can be compared line for line.
def print_meta(m: Meta) {
    print(f"version {m.header.version} tensors {m.header.n_tensors} keys {m.header.n_kv}")
    for k to len(m.keys) {
        v = m.values[k]
        names = join(",", [TYPE_NAMES[t] for t in v.types])
        n = len(v.ints) + len(v.nums) + len(v.strs)
        print(f"{m.keys[k]} {names} {n:d}")
        for i in v.ints {
            print(f"  {i}")
        }
        for x in v.nums {
            print(f"  {x:.17g}")
        }
        for s in v.strs {
            print(f"  {repr(s)}")
        }
    }
}

test "the four fields of a header" {
    # "GGUF", version 3, 2 tensors, 5 keys
    b: [Int] = [71, 71, 85, 70, 3, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
    h = header_of(b)
    assert_true(h.version == 3)
    assert_true(h.n_tensors == 2)
    assert_true(h.n_kv == 5)
}

test "UTF-8 text from bytes" {
    # "aé▁" : 61, C3 A9, E2 96 81
    b: [Int] = [97, 195, 169, 226, 150, 129]
    assert_true(utf8(b, 0, len(b)) == "aé▁")
    assert_true(utf8(b, 1, 2) == "é")
}

# SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT OR Apache-2.0
# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 The Viv authors

# "GGUF" read as a little-endian u32: 0x46554747
GGUF_MAGIC: Int = 1179993927
# the version this reader knows; 1 and 2 had 32-bit counts
GGUF_VERSION: Int = 3
# the four fields: magic, version, tensor count, key-value count
OFF_VERSION: Int = 4
OFF_N_TENSORS: Int = 8
OFF_N_KV: Int = 16
HEADER_BYTES: Int = 24

# the value types (docs/gguf.md, enum gguf_metadata_value_type)
T_UINT8: Int = 0
T_INT8: Int = 1
T_UINT16: Int = 2
T_INT16: Int = 3
T_UINT32: Int = 4
T_INT32: Int = 5
T_FLOAT32: Int = 6
T_BOOL: Int = 7
T_STRING: Int = 8
T_ARRAY: Int = 9
T_UINT64: Int = 10
T_INT64: Int = 11
T_FLOAT64: Int = 12
TYPE_NAMES: [Str] = ["UINT8", "INT8", "UINT16", "INT16", "UINT32", "INT32", "FLOAT32", "BOOL", "STRING", "ARRAY", "UINT64", "INT64", "FLOAT64"]
# bytes a value of each type takes; 0 for the two that carry their length
TYPE_BYTES: [Int] = [1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 1, 0, 0, 8, 8, 8]
# bytes read from the file at a time
WINDOW: Int = 65536

record Header {
    version: Int
    n_tensors: Int
    n_kv: Int
}

#| A position in a file and a window of its bytes: `b` holds the bytes from
#| offset `base`, and `pos` is the offset of the next byte to read. A reader
#| with no path reads only `b`, the start of a file a caller already holds.
record Reader {
    path: Str
    b: [Int]
    base: Int
    pos: Int
}

#| One metadata value. `types` is the value's type, then for an ARRAY its
#| element type, and so on down (gguf-py's `ReaderField.types`); the values
#| themselves, an array's flattened, are in `ints` (the integer types and
#| BOOL, as 0 or 1), `nums` (FLOAT32 and FLOAT64) or `strs` (STRING).
record Value {
    types: [Int]
    ints: [Int]
    nums: Arr
    strs: [Str]
}

#| A file's header and metadata: `keys[k]` holds `values[k]`, in file
#| order, and `end` is the offset just past the last value.
record Meta {
    header: Header
    keys: [Str]
    values: [Value]
    end: Int
}

#| The four fields at the start of a GGUF file, from its first bytes `b`.
def header_of(b: [Int]) -> Header {
    if len(b) < HEADER_BYTES {
        stop(f"GGUF: {len(b):d} bytes is shorter than a header")
    }
    if le_u32(b, 0) != GGUF_MAGIC {
        stop("GGUF: the file does not start with the bytes GGUF")
    }
    version = le_u32(b, OFF_VERSION)
    if version != GGUF_VERSION {
        stop(f"GGUF: version {version}; this reader knows version 3")
    }
    return Header { version: version, n_tensors: le_u64(b, OFF_N_TENSORS), n_kv: le_u64(b, OFF_N_KV) }
}

#| The header of the GGUF file at `path`.
def read_header(path: Str) -> Header {
    return header_of(read_bytes(path, 0, HEADER_BYTES))
}

#| A reader at offset `pos` of the file at `path`, its window not read yet.
def reader_at(path: Str, pos: Int) -> Reader {
    none: [Int] = []
    return Reader { path: path, b: none, base: pos, pos: pos }
}

#| A reader of the bytes `b`, the first bytes of a file, with no file behind them.
def reader_of(b: [Int]) -> Reader {
    return Reader { path: "", b: b, base: 0, pos: 0 }
}

#| `r` with at least `k` bytes from its position in its window: the same
#| reader when they are there, else a new window that starts at the position.
def need(r: Reader, k: Int) -> Reader {
    if r.pos >= r.base and r.pos + k <= r.base + len(r.b) {
        return r
    }
    if r.path == "" {
        stop(f"GGUF: the bytes given end at offset {len(r.b)}, inside a value that needs {k} bytes from {r.pos}")
    }
    w = r
    w.b = read_bytes(r.path, r.pos, max(k, WINDOW))
    w.base = r.pos
    if len(w.b) < k {
        stop(f"GGUF: {r.path} ends at offset {r.pos + len(w.b)}, inside a value that needs {k} bytes from {r.pos}")
    }
    return w
}

#| `r` moved `k` bytes on.
def skip(r: Reader, k: Int) -> Reader {
    q = r
    q.pos = r.pos + k
    return q
}

#| The bytes `b[at:at+n]` as UTF-8 text.
def utf8(b: [Int], at: Int, n: Int) -> Str {
    out: [Str] = []
    i = at
    while i < at + n {
        c = b[i]
        # the length of the sequence from its first byte: 0xxxxxxx, 110xxxxx,
        # 1110xxxx, 11110xxx; a continuation byte is 10xxxxxx
        k: Int = 1
        cp = c
        if c >= 240 {
            k = 4
            cp = band(c, 7)
        }
        else if c >= 224 {
            k = 3
            cp = band(c, 15)
        }
        else if c >= 192 {
            k = 2
            cp = band(c, 31)
        }
        else if c >= 128 {
            stop(f"GGUF: byte {c} at offset {i} does not start a UTF-8 character")
        }
        if i + k > at + n {
            stop("GGUF: a string ends inside a UTF-8 character")
        }
        for j from 1 to k {
            cp = bor(shl(cp, 6), band(b[i + j], 63))
        }
        out = append(out, chr(cp))
        i = i + k
    }
    return join("", out)
}

#| A GGUF string at the reader: u64 length, then the bytes.
def take_str(r: Reader) {
    q = need(r, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64])
    n = le_u64(q.b, q.pos - q.base)
    q = skip(q, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64])
    q = need(q, n)
    s = utf8(q.b, q.pos - q.base, n)
    return skip(q, n), s
}

#| A u32 at the reader (a type code).
def take_u32(r: Reader) {
    q = need(r, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT32])
    return skip(q, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT32]), le_u32(q.b, q.pos - q.base)
}

#| A u64 at the reader (a count).
def take_u64(r: Reader) {
    q = need(r, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64])
    return skip(q, TYPE_BYTES[T_UINT64]), le_u64(q.b, q.pos - q.base)
}

#| One value of type `t` at the reader, added to `v`: a number, a bool or a
#| string, or for an ARRAY its element type, its count and its elements.
#| `depth` counts the arrays this value is inside; an element type is noted
#| in `v.types` once per level.
def take_value(r: Reader, t: Int, v: Value, depth: Int) {
    q = r
    w = v
    if t == T_STRING {
        q, s = take_str(q)
        w.strs = append(w.strs, s)
    }
    else if t == T_ARRAY {
        q, et = take_u32(q)
        q, n = take_u64(q)
        if len(w.types) == depth + 1 {
            w.types = append(w.types, et)
        }
        for k to n {
            q, w = take_value(q, et, w, depth + 1)
        }
    }
    else if t >= 0 and t < len(TYPE_BYTES) {
        k = TYPE_BYTES[t]
        q = need(q, k)
        at = q.pos - q.base
        if t == T_FLOAT32 {
            w.nums = append(w.nums, le_f32(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_FLOAT64 {
            w.nums = append(w.nums, le_f64(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT8 or t == T_BOOL {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_u8(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_INT8 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i8(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT16 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_u16(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_INT16 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i16(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT32 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_u32(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_INT32 {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i32(q.b, at))
        }
        else if t == T_UINT64 {
            # a UINT64 above 2^63 - 1 is kept as its bit pattern, a negative Int
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i64(q.b, at))
        }
        else {
            w.ints = append(w.ints, le_i64(q.b, at))
        }
        q = skip(q, k)
    }
    else {
        stop(f"GGUF: value type {t} at offset {r.pos} is not one of the thirteen")
    }
    return q, w
}

#| The header and every key-value pair of the GGUF file at `path`.
def read_meta(path: Str) -> Meta {
    return meta_from(reader_at(path, 0))
}

#| The header and every key-value pair, read by `r`, a reader at offset 0.
def meta_from(r0: Reader) -> Meta {
    r = need(r0, HEADER_BYTES)
    h = header_of(r.b[:HEADER_BYTES])
    r = skip(r, HEADER_BYTES)
    keys: [Str] = []
    values: [Value] = []
    for k to h.n_kv {
        r, key = take_str(r)
        r, t = take_u32(r)
        ts: [Int] = [t]
        v = Value { types: ts, ints: int_zeros(0), nums: [], strs: [] }
        r, v = take_value(r, t, v, 0)
        keys = append(keys, key)
        values = append(values, v)
    }
    return Meta { header: h, keys: keys, values: values, end: r.pos }
}

#| The position of `key` among the metadata's keys, or -1.
def find_key(m: Meta, key: Str) -> Int {
    for k to len(m.keys) {
        if m.keys[k] == key {
            return int(k)
        }
    }
    return -1
}

#| The integer value of `key` (an integer type or BOOL); `fallback` when the
#| file has no such key.
def meta_int(m: Meta, key: Str, fallback: Int) -> Int {
    k = find_key(m, key)
    if k < 0 {
        return fallback
    }
    if len(m.values[k].ints) != 1 {
        stop(f"GGUF: {key} is not one integer")
    }
    return m.values[k].ints[0]
}

#| The string value of `key`; `fallback` when the file has no such key.
def meta_str(m: Meta, key: Str, fallback: Str) -> Str {
    k = find_key(m, key)
    if k < 0 {
        return fallback
    }
    if len(m.values[k].strs) != 1 or m.values[k].types[0] != T_STRING {
        stop(f"GGUF: {key} is not a string")
    }
    return m.values[k].strs[0]
}

#| One line per key, `key TYPES count`, then one line per element, in the
#| form tools/gguf/ref.py prints gguf-py's fields (strings as Python's repr,
#| numbers to 17 digits), so the two can be compared line for line.
def print_meta(m: Meta) {
    print(f"version {m.header.version} tensors {m.header.n_tensors} keys {m.header.n_kv}")
    for k to len(m.keys) {
        v = m.values[k]
        names = join(",", [TYPE_NAMES[t] for t in v.types])
        n = len(v.ints) + len(v.nums) + len(v.strs)
        print(f"{m.keys[k]} {names} {n:d}")
        for i in v.ints {
            print(f"  {i}")
        }
        for x in v.nums {
            print(f"  {x:.17g}")
        }
        for s in v.strs {
            print(f"  {repr(s)}")
        }
    }
}

test "the four fields of a header" {
    # "GGUF", version 3, 2 tensors, 5 keys
    b: [Int] = [71, 71, 85, 70, 3, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
    h = header_of(b)
    assert_true(h.version == 3)
    assert_true(h.n_tensors == 2)
    assert_true(h.n_kv == 5)
}

test "UTF-8 text from bytes" {
    # "aé▁" : 61, C3 A9, E2 96 81
    b: [Int] = [97, 195, 169, 226, 150, 129]
    assert_true(utf8(b, 0, len(b)) == "aé▁")
    assert_true(utf8(b, 1, 2) == "é")
}

# SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT OR Apache-2.0
# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2026 The Viv authors